• In the 20^th century, the political geography of the world was transformed of anti-colonialism.
• Nationalism often adopted as states may be artificial creations lack of national distinctiveness.
• Aware they may ‘fall prey’ to economic imperialism - so adopted socialism to avoid this. It also removed power of the local elites.
• Most commonly Marxist/Socialist nationalism.
• Synthesis of Islam and Nationalism in the Middle East, e.g., Iran, Libya, and Pakistan.

Anti-colonial Leaders